Palestinians suffer from extreme water shortages due to discriminatory Israeli policies, which include restrictions on drilling new water wells, installing pumps, or deepening existing wells without Israeli permits. Additionally, they are denied access to the Jordan River and freshwater springs and face discriminatory regulations on rainwater collection and harvesting.

Policies of Water Apartheid

Israel imposed stringent bans and restrictions on the Palestinian water sector immediately after its occupation of the West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and the Gaza Strip in June 1967. The Israeli military authorities centralized full control over all water resources and water-related infrastructure in the Occupied Palestinian Territories (OPT). In November 1967, Military Order 158 was issued by Israeli authorities, mandating that Palestinians must obtain permits from the Israeli army to construct any new water installations. Palestinians were then obligated to seek Israeli permission to drill new wells. However, such permits were granted sparingly which intensified the difficulties faced by Palestinians in accessing water resources.

Joint Water Committee

The Joint Water Committee (JWC), established under the Oslo Accords, oversees water resource management in the West Bank. Established for a five-year interim period that was supposed to end in 1999, the committee continues to date due to the absence of a permanent status agreement for the OPT. It oversees water resource management in the West Bank, excluding the Jordan River.  

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Obtaining approval from the JWC is just the initial step for Palestinians undertaking water projects in the West Bank. The three zones of the West Bank, Area A, B and C were established after the Oslo Accords, with Area C being contiguous and covering over 60% of the West Bank. Following JWC approval, additional permits from the Israeli army are required before commencing any work in Area C.

Many applications are rejected, delayed, or simply ignored for days. Even with permits, the execution of work hinges on the Israeli army’s evaluation of “security considerations” in the specific location. Areas can be restricted to Palestinians for hours to weeks or longer, based on the Israeli army’s obscure security assessments. For example, repairing pipes connecting various sections of Area C and linking villages to wells necessitates obtaining separate permits for each area. The execution of this work is contingent on the Israeli army’s assessment of the so-called security considerations in the planned areas. Initiating such projects without prior approval leads to their suspension or demolition by the Israeli army.

Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement

In 1995, Israel and the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) signed the Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, however, it failed to adequately address the Palestinians’ needs. Since the signing, Israel has extracted up to three times the amount from the Eastern Aquifer than initially agreed upon. In contrast, Palestinian withdrawals from the Eastern Aquifer have decreased, dropping from 138 million cubic meters (MCM) to 84 MCM in less than a decade. This decline is partially attributed to a decline in the water table potentially influenced by excessive Israeli extraction.

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A major flaw in the Interim Agreement is the false equivalence of power dynamics between Israel and the Palestinians, with a complete disregard for the reality of Palestinian occupation. The agreement uses language suggesting two analogous water sectors—one Israeli and the other Palestinian—creating an illusion of joint monitoring and sharing of resources between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. 

While limiting Palestinians’ access to water, Israel has actively expanded its own water infrastructure and network in the West Bank to serve its citizens both in Israel and in settlements despite being illegal under international law. Mekorot, the state-owned Israeli water company, has systematically drilled wells and tapped springs in the occupied West Bank to provide water for domestic, agricultural, and industrial purposes, including to Israeli settlers residing in illegal settlements.

Consequences for the Palestinian Community

As many as 180 rural Palestinian communities lack access to running water. Similarly, up to 97% of the water supply in Gaza is heavily contaminated. Numerous Palestinian communities in the West Bank are compelled to buy water from mobile trucks operated independently by Palestinians, accruing heavy costs. In some impoverished communities, water expenses can constitute up to half of a family’s monthly income. Moreover, Palestinian farmers have been forced to constantly vary their crops due to a lack of sufficient water supply.

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Breach of Agreements

Most of the arrangements stipulated in the Interim Agreement have not been implemented to this day. Almost 30 years after the agreement was signed, the Palestinians are still not able to pump the agreed amounts of water. Additionally, the JWC has become a tool for promoting Israeli interests only, whereas the failure of the Interim Agreement to ensure joint supervision and enforcement of water resources has left Israel with the sole enforcement powers. 

The contrast between the water supply enjoyed by Israeli citizens and the deliberate shortages imposed on Palestinians exposes a system of inequity and apartheid faced by Palestinians under Israeli occupation. Israel’s unilateral control over Palestine’s water resources, coupled with a failure to uphold agreements, perpetuates a cycle of hardship for Palestinians. The water crisis not only reflects the power imbalances inherent in Israel’s occupation of Palestine leading to decades of conflict but also underscores the urgent need for international intervention to end the occupation, policies of apartheid and a reassessment of agreements to ensure a just and sustainable water distribution system in the region.

The post Israel’s Water Apartheid Policies in the Palestinian West Bank and Gaza Strip appeared first on Muslim Climate Watch.

Water & Energy Apartheid Behind Sustainable Development

Kashmir suffers from persistent and severe water and energy shortages despite the region’s plentiful water resources and hydropower potential. Under the pretext of sustainable development, India has entangled the region in water and energy apartheid. Indigenous Kashmiris are systematically deprived of water and energy resources, whilst India disproportionately benefits from the exploitation of the region’s resources. The inequality in resource allocation, driven by political, economic and geopolitical factors, continues to negatively impact the environment, as well as the indigenous communities of Kashmir. 

India’s appropriation of Kashmir’s water resources is undergoing an aggressive dam construction season, supposedly aimed at generating ‘clean energy’. However, this construction spree in an ecologically fragile is posing many environmental risks, while displacing many locals. In a classic case of greenwashing, India is hiding the severe negative impacts of the development of these dams by labelling the projects as furthering sustainable development through clean energy. Ironically, despite the construction of a number of new dams, Kashmir continues to experience debilitating water shortages and prolonged electricity outages.

Occupied Kashmir currently generates around 3,263 megawatts of hydropower exceeding the region’s demand of 2,134 megawatts. Despite sufficient generation capacity, the region continues to grapple with frequent power outages. These power outages often persist for extended periods of time, particularly during harsh winters and hot summers where outages last over 4-8 hours a day. 

National Hydroelectric Power Corporation Ltd. (NHCP) is a power producer owned by the Indian Occupation operating in the region and responsible for generating 60% of the region’s electricity. Despite the NHCP capitalizing on Kashmir’s water resources, it provides just 10 -13% of the electricity it produces to Kashmir, exporting the majority to India. This results in Kashmir being forced to procure the majority of its power (around 80%) from India at extortionately high prices to meet its energy requirements. This water exploitation and unequal electricity allocation emphasizes the reality of indigenous Kashmiris suffering from water and energy apartheid at the hands of the Indian Occupation. 

Forced Displacements

The Indian Occupation’s dam construction in the region has resulted in the displacement of hundreds of thousands of indigenous Kashmiris. India’s relentless pursuit of hydro resources includes plans for the construction of eight new dams in this environmentally fragile region. In the district of Kishtwar located in the Chenab valley, India has begun constructing seven dams along the Chenab River all within a 50-mile radius of each other. These dams alone have resulted in the displacement of over 20,000 Kashmiris from their ancestral lands, upending lives and posing significant risk to the region’s fragile ecology. 

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It is worth noting that such examples are not one-off occurrences but instead have become concerningly common. The construction of the large-scale 900-megawatt Baglihar Dam in 2008, located in the Ramban district along the Chenab River, was responsible for the forced displacement of over 1,400 people. In all cases of displacement due to dam construction, the Indian government has provided inadequate compensation to the affected people, leaving them displaced without a home, land or means of sustaining themselves. Consequently, many displaced people are experiencing generational poverty, with their primary means of sustenance snatched from them.

Lack of Environmental Due Diligence

The South Asian Network on Dams, Rivers and People (SANDRP) has drawn attention to major flaws in the process of environmental impact assessment during the construction of dams in Kashmir. The group has provided evidence of India’s Ministry of Environment and Climate Change granting clearance for dam construction before such crucial assessments had been completed and without appropriately consulting affected stakeholders. This included indigenous Kashmiris whose resources, homes and land were being appropriated to facilitate dam construction while they were left in the dark. This reinforces the power imbalance between the Indian occupation and the Kashmiri population. 

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Despite claims that dams along the Chenab River, including the Baglihar 900 MW and Sawalkot 1,856 MW dams, are run-of-the-river schemes, experts challenge this categorization. Instead, experts have provided evidence that these dams are at high elevations, equipped with large reservoirs to store vast volumes of water and house substantial powerhouses, typical of a reservoir hydropower scheme as opposed to a run-of-the-river scheme. The disruption of natural water flow by these large dams results in significant ecological and social impacts including habitat destruction and displacement of communities. Moreover, by diverting water supplies from rivers and storing them in large reservoirs, these dams also pose challenges to the livelihoods of Kashmiris living downstream who depend on these rivers and their fisheries.

Ecological and Environmental Damage

The construction of numerous dams in Occupied Kashmir, located near each other, has unleashed severe ecological and environmental risks.

Seismic Activity

The region of Occupied Kashmir sits on a seismic belt, making it prone to frequent and intense earthquakes. Kashmir’s seismic vulnerability is exacerbated by the construction of large-scale dams on or near fault lines, where the permeation of water from dams into the fractures induces earthquakes. India’s building of dams within a mere 50-mile radius of each other along the Chenab River is a further cause for worry. This bumper-to-bumper dam construction can trigger earthquakes, endangering lives and livelihoods in the process. 

Landslides and Flooding

Landslides and flooding are a common consequence of excessive large-scale dam construction. This is evident with the example of the Baglihar Dam, which has triggered frequent landslides and flooding in villages along the Chenab River. 

Loss of Habitat

Excessive dam construction has altered the natural flow of rivers, putting migratory fish and other aquatic creatures at risk of extinction, and disrupting the delicate balance of the ecosystem. Birds that feed on marine life are forced to look elsewhere for food, in time disappearing from the region’s floodplains, wetlands and farmlands. GHG emissions have also increased as a result of dams.

Deforestation

India’s felling of trees to build dams has caused widespread deforestation in the region. This has led to devastating environmental impacts including a reduction in flora and fauna of the region, increased glacial melt, flash floods, and a rise in GHG emissions due to the loss of tree cover that served as carbon sinks. 

Climate Justice for Kashmir

India’s damaging development projects in Occupied Kashmir are being overlooked by the international community due to its greenwashing. Such destructive development projects are ramping up under the guise of sustainable development and clean energy initiatives, raising serious concerns of water apartheid, displacement and environmental degradation. The construction of dams not only displaces indigenous communities but also disrupts fragile ecosystems and exacerbates the impacts of climate change, thus posing long-term risks to the region’s sustainability. 

Recognizing the rights of indigenous Kashmiris by restoring their sovereignty over their resources through inclusive resource management and development strategies is vital to the well-being of the region. Conducting comprehensive environmental assessments for all infrastructure development projects in the region is crucial to rectifying the environmental and societal harms, while also fostering sustainable development in the region. 

References

• Ahmad, O. (2016, January 16). Environmental assessment for Jammu and Kashmir dam breaks all rules. The Third Pole. https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/energy/environmental-assessment-for-jammu-and-kashmir-dam-breaks-all-rules/
• Akmali, M. (2020, November 21). Power generation in Jammu and Kashmir plummets to 408 MWs. Greater Kashmir. https://www.greaterkashmir.com/todays-paper/power-generation-in-jk-plummets-to-408-mws
• Al Jazeera. (2021, September 9). Kashmir villages facing submergence as India plans Himalayan dam. Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/9/9/kashmir-india-new-himalayan-dam-ujh-environment
• Environmental impacts of dams. (n.d.). International Rivers. Retrieved September 12, 2023, from https://archive.internationalrivers.org/environmental-impacts-of-dams
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• Javeed, A. (2022, April 21). Power crisis in Kashmir valley likely to worsen. Kashmir Observer. https://kashmirobserver.net/2022/04/21/power-crisis-in-kashmir-valley-likely-to-worsen/
• Kaur, H. (2019, September 10). Weaponizing Water in Kashmir. Legal Planet. https://legal-planet.org/2019/09/10/weaponizing-water-in-kashmir/
• Lateef, S. (2021, December 28). Why is Kashmir facing a power shortage? Deutsche Welle. https://www.dw.com/en/why-is-india-administered-kashmir-facing-a-power-shortage/a-60275456
• Nabi, S. (n.d.). Green power at any cost? Asparagus Magazine. Retrieved September 12, 2023, from https://www.asparagusmagazine.com/articles/new-hydro-dams-in-indian-controlled-kashmir-will-hurt-ecosystems-and-indigenous-communities
• Naik, R. H. (2020a). Climate tracker. https://climatetracker.org/construction-of-7-new-dams-in-kashmir-raises-human-environmental-cost-concerns/
• Naik, R. H. (2020b, July 24). Video: The human costs of the Baglihar dam. The Third Pole. https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/energy/video-the-human-cost-of-the-baglihar-dam/
• Naik, R. H. (2020c, October 30). Homes, nature lost for seven new dams in Kishtwar, Jammu & Kashmir. The Third Pole. https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/nature/homes-nature-lost-for-seven-new-dams-in-kishtwar-jammu-kashmir/
• Open letter to J&KSPCB: Cancel public hearings for Sawalkote HEP for violations. (2016, January 14). SANDRP. https://sandrp.in/2016/01/14/open-letter-to-jkspcb-cancel-public-hearings-for-sawalkote-hep-for-violations/
• Understanding the role of Water in India’s occupation of Kashmir. (2020, August 2). Stand With Kashmir. https://standwithkashmir.org/understanding-the-role-of-water-in-indias-occupation-of-kashmir/

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